Historical development of altitude training

7 October 2006

1-  Historical development of altitude training:

In 1878 the Swiss physiologist Bert began to study the influence of a reduced atmospheric pressure on physical performance. Mosso –1897 and Cohanheim 1903 published books about high altitude physiology.

Before the first world was Zuntz and his collaborators 1906 dealt mainly with the physiological and clinical problems of stay at medium and high altitude. Zuntz, for example, rose in a balloon to more that 8000m. Barcroft 1914 dealt with similar questions.

In 1963, the Olympic games of the year 1968 were given to Mexico city, with its stadium at an altitude of 2240m. This led to a significant expansion of the knowledge of acute and chronic performance behavior of man under conditions of medium altitude (2000 to 3000m).

 In 1965, experiments conducted as a preparation for this altitude Olympics, led to the first description of the possibility of carrying out altitude training in a laboratory (hypoxia training, HOLLMANN) and to the examination of the effects of hypoxia training (HOLLMANN, 1967).

Experiment with future Olympians, prior to their departure for Mexico City, as well as during a several weeks stay in Mexico City one year before the Olympic games, were conducted by the German sport physicians Reindell et al. and by their Swedish colleagues Saltin et al.

 In this way, previous estimations and assumptions about acute altitude reactions and chronic adaptations in connection with moderate physical work could be corroborated and further knowledge could be obtained.

Presumably there has never been, in the history of attitude research, such an intensive advance of knowledge about human performance behavior at medium altitudes as during the 1960s, in connection with the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City.

2- General aspects of sport performance at medium altitude:

A-Performance behavior at medium altitude is influenced by three factors:

·                    Reduced air density.

·                    Reduced water vapor pressure, and

·                    Reduced partial pressure of O2

The reduction of air density has a positive effect on speed and speed-strength performances. Thus, in the sprints, the altitude of Mexico City corresponds to a tail wind of about 1.5 to 1.7m/sec.

The exceptionally good sprint performances at 100,200 and 400m at medium altitude are, therefore, understandable. The sprints are almost exclusively anaerobic performances, which are not hampered by the reduced partial pressure of O2 but which are assisted by the reduced air density.

B-    More general information:
The improvement of performance upon returning from altitude may be attributed to an increase in aerobic and anaerobic productivity, economy of work and the general and specific endurance of the organism. At altitude there is a considerable increase in maximum strength and power.

We can observe an improvement in fine neuromuscular co-ordination, which enables the athlete to overcome the speed barrier. We not also an improvement in the reaction to moving objects and in precision of movement.

These positive changes persist for some eight weeks after returning from altitude.

Hypoxia training in the laboratory:
In 1963 they began to investigate, in the laboratory under hypoxia conditions, the affect of 5 endurance-training sessions of 30 to 45 minutes each. For this purpose they chose 12 Vol% O2 in the inspired air. The subjects had been in a good state of endurance even before they began hypoxia training.

 In spite of this, they could observe significant performance increases in comparison to control group training under normal conditions.

 There was a significant increase in the maximum oxygen uptake and a significant reduction in the pulse rate at sub maximal load stages. There was also a significant reduction of lactate concentration as compared to the control group, with a corresponding rise of the blood pH value.

Practical application of altitude training: In practice we define the following altitude heights:

Low                up to 1200m.

Medium           from 1300m to 2500m.

High                over 3000m.

At present it is debatable whether it is expedient to use heights in excess of 3000m.

High altitude conditions put athletes of different specialties in an unequal situation in regard to two factors – speed of movement and duration of work.

A reduction in air density leads to a lowering of air resistance but diminishes the organism's supply of oxygen.

Altitude causes hypoxia:
Distance running is primarily an aerobic (oxygen requiring) event. Breathing environmental air provides this oxygen, which moves from the lungs into the blood. In the blood, 98.5% of the oxygen chemically binds to hemoglobin, found in the red blood cells.

The cardiovascular system distributes this blood everywhere, particularly to the working tissues, notably cardiac and skeletal muscle. Oxygen then diffuses into these tissues, permitting a high rate of metabolism of fatty acids and carbohydrates for energy production, with minimum accumulation of lactic acid.

 A runner's ability to utilize oxygen can be determined using a treadmill run to voluntary exhaustion, with appropriate analyses of expired gases.

The value obtained is called VO_2max or maximum aerobic power.

Adaptation to altitude hypoxia:
Can one adapt to altitude hypoxia by simply living at altitude or is training required? Both bring about an adaptation. When sedentary people travel to altitude, and remain there for an extended period, e.g a month or more, their tolerance to the hypoxic stress of occasional exercise improves even though they do not train (Grover,Weil and Reeves, 1986).

Beneficial physiological adaptations have obviously occurred. Training at altitude provides additional hypoxic stress, resulting in additional adaptation.

The response is similar to the changes seen with hard training at sea level, which is also a form of hypoxic stress, due to the high level of effort requiring more oxygen than can be provided for complete fuel metabolism.

The positive effect of training at medium and high altitudes is concerned with the determination of the tasks to be carried out.

Altitude training is a performance resource because it can be used to set training stimuli which are higher than the stimuli triggered by normal training methods.

A general finding of various recent studies is that altitude training is a developmental stimulus because the organism adapts to the reduced oxygen partial pressure and the resulting lack of oxygen.

In addition to this, the specific climatic conditions (changed air humidity and temperature, intensity of solar radiation, air ionization) have a long-lasting positive effect on the following main functional parameters of the organism:

• Erythrocyte volume, hemoglobin concentration, myoglobin concentration.
• Cardiovascular and respiratory system (heart rate, ventilatory minute volume, oxygen uptake).
• Cell/number of mitochondria / capillarization.
• Number of enzymes (aerobic and anaerobic).
• Energy metabolism (carbohydrates and fats).
• Hormonal regulation.
• Acid tolerance.

How does the body adapt to the hypoxia caused by training at altitude?
Several physiological changes occur. More enzymes are produced by the working muscles for oxidative metabolism.

These are found particularly in the skeletal muscle mitochondria, which increase both in size and numbers.

There is also, in the working skeletal muscles, a greater utilization of fatty acids as a primary fuel rather than glycogen. As a result, blood lactic acid production is reduced during sub maximum work.

The heart rate response varies. In some athletes, an initial elevation of resting heart rate occurs and persists. In others the heart rate returns to its sea level value.

Maximum achievable heart rate is unchanged but it now occurs at a slower work rate than a sea level. The blood volume pumped out with each beat of the heart (stroke volume) typically decreases.

Thus, even with optimum altitude adaptation, maximum cardiac out put never reaches that seen at sea level. This helps to explain shy an athlete's VO2 max at altitude is less than at sea level.

We may identify three way of using altitude training:

·                    In preparation for competitions due to take place at medium and high altitudes, several training periods of from 20 to 35 days duration at altitude are needed during the annual training cycle, in order to adapt the organism effectively.

During these periods one should plan a gradual increase in the load intensity, thereby ensuring a steady and reliable adaptation to the action of climatic factors and the training loads.

·                    In preparation for competitions due to take place at normal heights, less frequent and shorter periods of altitude training are needed but the load intensity should be progressively increased for each period. The dynamics of work capacity should be strictly controlled during these period of re-acclimatization.

·                 In preparation for a series of competitions taking place at varying height, such as we encounter in the case of winter sports, additional research is needed for us to form any firm conclusions.

The place and duration of altitude training in the year's macro cycle:

During our much year practice we have experimented with different durations of from 2-8 weeks, or even longer. The results of competitions, together with the scientific and medial investigations, have convinced us that the optimal duration of a training camp at an altitude of 2000m is from 3-4 weeks.

 We have also experimented with a stay of only two weeks for some special athlete, we call "heightens". There are:

A-Runners who trained several times at altitude.

B-Runners who from genetic reasons, adapt easier and have shorter adaptive reaction.

The time and frequency of the training camps:
Careful planning is needed to ensure that the altitude training fits correctly into the general training programmer. If we were to follow the principle "the more frequent the better" we would very likely deviate from our planned training programmer.

Training characteristics during the various mesocycles:
It is well known that acclimatization includes several adaptive phases. The correct planning and execution of the first two weeks training are very important. It is precisely here that we encounter the debate for and against altitude training.

We often face many different reactions from the athletes in the first few days, such as lack of appetite, nausea, over excitement, various euphoric effects, insomnia and nose bleeding. We always take great care to apply the scientific and specific principles of training, especially in regard to the regulation of the loads to ensure that they can be achieved, the wavelike pattern of the loads and the treatment of the athletes as individuals, both in the micro and meso cycle.

The failure or success of the following phases of acclimatization depends on our adherence to these principles during the first 10 days, the so-called days of unstable adaptation.

It is very important that progress should be very gradual in everything, especially in the length of the sections of each training unit and the optimal duration of the rest intervals. No competition is permitted during the first 8 to 9 days.

Re-acclimatization:
This phase is extremely important. The working capacity of the athletes fluctuates upon return from altitude.

There is some controversy about the time of the highest or lowest level of performance achieved. In our experience, the peak results generally do not occur until after the 18^th day.

-To minimize the danger of overloading to the athlete:

·                    During the acclimatization period.

·                    During high altitude training.

The acclimatization periods are divided into two phases of 1-7 days and 7-14 days.

During the first phase, loadings are of an aerobic character and their duration is decreased to 70-80% of the normal. The training includes general power exercises of an alactic nature, (running, skipping, jumping exercises. Ect.).

After the 7^th day the volume of the running is gradually increased, up to as much as 90% of the norm, and a mixture of aerobic and anaerobic loads is employed. By the end of the 14-16 days period, training intensity is near the norm.

All these indices of the training load are individually determined. Two criteria are use to regulate this process:

-                     Subjective, observing the visible appearance and reactions of each athlete.

-                     Objective, checking the basic physiological indices, pulse rate, electrocardiography, and biochemical tests etc.

Recommendations for the reduction of running speed during the high altitude training:
At the altitudes mentioned above, We would start be slowing training intensities by 6 seconds per 400m of running, for threshold and VO_2max sessions only.

For repetitions, I would keep to normal sea level intensities. This is very important, if the final competition is to be held at sea level. For example, a set of 8 x 1000m in 3.00min each with a 2min recovery, at sea level would become a set of 1000m in 3.15 each, with 2min recovery at altitude.

However, a set of 12 x 400m, in 66sec each, would remain the same, although it might mean longer recoveries. In other words, normal sea level pace should be maintained during shorter, faster work.

Special steps should be taken for regeneration and nutrition for a high altitude training camp as compared to one at sea level:
The lack of oxygen is a constant burden for the system. Therefore, one needs to be aware that, even without training, the body deals with extra stress.

Recover is the most important aspect of a successful altitude camp. It includes sufficient sleep (8-10 hours / day), regular times for meals (4 meals a day), plenty of liquids (3-4 liters a day), a high carbohydrate diet, and the athlete's discipline in the easy training sessions.

We believe in rhythm as a principle of biological adaptation, particularly during an altitude camp.

Summary guidelines for managing altitude training:

Athletes, who have tried altitude training unsuccessfully, should re-think the details of their experience and try it again.

The lack of success may simply have resulted from poor planning and not knowing what questions to ask in preparation.

Careful consideration needs to be given to documenting information about four items:

1- Pre-altitude training fitness.
2- Altitude training load (work done in the context of environment).

3-Individual physiological performance assets or liabilities.
4- Success in managing the physiological changes occurring following a return to sea level.

The key points to remember for adding altitude training to a training macro cycle are the following:
1-Do not wait until it is time to prepare for an important championship to try altitude training for the first time.
2-Use laboratory physiological testing before going and after returning to quantify the extent of change (in such variables as VO_2max. anaerobic threshold, and hemoglobin.)

3-Do not go so high or train so hard that the altitude stress is excessive.
4-Ensure that the terrain used for training permits the option for flat as well as hilly running.

5- Stay long enough to acquire sufficient adaptation to make the effort worthwhile.
6-Create a home like lifestyle and an entirely hospitable training environment, by thorough advance planning (including a prior "tourist trip" to the local for initial arrangements and developing useful personal contacts.
7-  If important competitions following altitude training are planned for sea level, return home early enough (roughly two weeks) to permit appropriate sea level ventilator and neuromuscular adaptation before racing begins.

Rashid Ibrahim Al-kindi

Middle and Long Distance Coach